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The Islamic states were the active trading partners and sometimes allies of their neighbors from India and Central Asia to Africa and Europe.

The political, and military, history of medieval Europe and the Middle East is one of different political entities both warring and trading religion was certainly a major factor, but there are many cases where it was secondary to more prosaic economic or political concerns. Likewise, different Islamic states were often in conflict.

But, at the same time, the Christian kingdoms were often the enemies of one another as well.

They were certainly the target of the European crusades. The Islamic empires were often the enemies of various Christian ones.As noted in the previous chapter, it was Arab scholarship that preserved ancient Greek learning, and Arab scholars were responsible for numerous technological and scientific discoveries as well. During that period, they created and preserved all important scholarship worthy of the name. The Islamic empires were the most advanced in the world, alongside China, during the European Middle Ages.The word Allah simply means “God” in Arabic – He is the same God worshiped by Jews and Christians. The distinction is that, for Muslims, Muhammad was the last prophet, bringing the “definitive version” of God’s message to humanity. In Islam, the prophets that came before Muhammad, from Abraham and Moses to Jesus, are venerated as genuine messengers of God. Islam is a religion of precisely the same religious tradition as Judaism and Christianity.Islam was born in the heartland of Western Civilization: the Middle East.The history of Islam is an integral part of the history of Western Civilization.